What are the Functions of Parallelism and Chiasmus?

Some descriptions of the rhetoric devices of parallelism and chiasmus can be misleading. There are books that solely describe parallelism as a repetition of a certain sentence structure used to rhythmize a statement, lacking further information on function and use. The only example given in the Prüfungstraining Englisch Abitur (Senk et al. 2010) is: “Money tickles my fancy, and fame flatters my pride” (Senk et al. 2010, p.53). The same work characterizes chiasmus as a crossing of structures or terms by the sentence “Fair is foul, and foul is fair” from Shakespeare's Macbeth (see Senk et al. 2010, p.52). It is striking that the displayed sentences are not very common in today's English used by most students. As there are no further examples or explanations given, the reader of the book can't really understand the functions of the rhetorical means and won't be able to use them to improve his texts. That is why it is important to get to a more detailed insight into the concepts.

Parallelism can be seen as a tool that helps organizing a text. It does not only add rhythm to a sentence and makes it sound better, it also allows to structure ideas, order thoughts, emphasize related ideas and clarify meaning. A writer can parallel any sentence structures, e.g. verbs, adverbs, objects and phrases. The underlying idea is that sentence elements that are alike in function should also be alike in grammatical form.

1) Emphasize related ideas:

• Not paralleled: Students like reading, listening and to write essays about urban planning.
• Paralleled: Students like reading, listening and writing essays about urban planning.

The verb “to write” is different from the verbs “reading” and “listening,” which are gerunds. Verb consistency shows to a reader that all ideas are equally important. They have the same grammatical relationship to the same thing.

Sometimes it is hard to detect faulty parallelism in ones written work, as can be seen in the following sentences:

• Not paralleled: Lisa is neither a student nor is she a teacher.
• Paralleled: Lisa is neither a student nor a teacher. (→ same grammatical form)
• Paralleled: Neither is Lisa a student nor is she a teacher. (→ same grammatical form)

2) Structure thought / facilitate memorization:

• Not paralleled: These students – who have astonishing ideas, like to be creative and eating in the canteen – usually have the potential to lead far reaching discussions.
• Paralleled: These students - who have astonishing ideas, who like to be creative, and who like eating in the canteen – usually have the potential to lead far reaching discussions.

The repetition of certain words may help structuring thoughts and memorizing important aspects.

3) Clarify meaning:

• Not paralleled: Mel researches cell membranes and walls.

→ This sentence leaves open the question whether Mel is a biologist and looks for a new aesthetic wallpaper, or if she is a biologist that looks at all constituents of a cell.

• Paralleled: Mel researches cell membranes and cell walls.

The given examples show that a consistency in form can make it easier for a reader to follow the arguments of a text and thereby to understand and remember them. This is why parallelism can also be a helpful tool in the domain of essay writing.

Chiasmus is defined as reverse parallelism. An AB order thus becomes a BA construction.

This device can help to underline a point of view or transport a distinct diction.

Sitting together in the seminar (A), the students talked effusively (B); but they said nothing at all (B) sitting in the pub (A)

Sitting together in the seminar (A), the students talked effusively (B); but sitting in the pub (A), they said nothing at all (B).

The order of sentence structures supports a certain diction and sets a certain focus. The chiasmus in the given example stresses the fact that the students didn't say a word although they were in the pub, a place where people are likely to communicate with each other.

Another example:

• What is learned (A) unwillingly (B) is forgotten (A) gladly (B).
• What is learned (A) unwillingly (B) is gladly (B) forgotten (A).

I wonder whether these examples and explanations could have convinced George Orwell of the fact that parallelism and chiasmus are helpful tools to enhance clarity in expression. He saw language as an instrument to express thought and thus asked everybody to use it as clearly as possible (see Orwell 1950, p.10). The given explanations suggest that this sought for clarity can be supported by the devices of parallelism and chiasmus. Still, a balanced and reflected use of stylistic devices is important. Only if your argument can be transported more clearly and effectively by putting it in the form of parallelism or chiasmus, the use will abide by Orwells demands.

List of Works Cited:

• Benner, L. Margaret. “Parallel Structure”. 2006. (webapps.towson.edu/ows/moduleparallel.htm)
• Jones, Kerry. “How Parallelism Can Drastically Improve Your Writing”. 2013. (community.copypress.com/how-parallelism-improves-writing/)
• Los Angeles Mission College. “Grammar. Parallelism Worksheets”.(lamission.edu/learningcenter/docs/asc/worksheets/Grammar/Parallelism.pdf)
• Orwell, George. “Politics and the English Language” in Shooting an Elephant and Other Essays. Secker and Warburg, London 1950.
• Senk, Simone et al. “Prüfungstraining Englisch Abitur”. Dudenverlag, Mannheim 2010.
• University of Richmond Writing Center. “Focusing Sentences Through Parallelism”.(writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/parstruc.html)

Aaron's Edit:

Some descriptions of the (rhetoric) [WF  - ^rhetorical] devices (of) [no prep] parallelism and chiasmus can be misleading. There are books that (solely) [WO] describe parallelism [s.a. - ^solely] as a repetition of a certain sentence structure used to rhythmize a statement, lacking further information on function and use. The only example given in the Prüfungstraining Englisch Abitur (Senk et al. 2010) is(:) [P - ^,] “Money tickles my fancy, and fame flatters my pride” (Senk et al. 2010, p.53). The same work characterizes chiasmus as a crossing of structures or terms [P;foc - ^, exemplified] by the sentence “Fair is foul, and foul is fair” from Shakespeare's Macbeth (see Senk et al. 2010, p.52). It is striking that the displayed sentences are not very common in today's English [E,coh - ^as] used by most students. As there are no further examples or explanations given, the reader of the book (can't) [reg - ^cannot] really understand the functions of the rhetorical means and won't be able to use them to improve (his) [St-sexist language - ^ their] texts. That is why it is important to get to a more detailed insight into the concepts.

Parallelism can be seen as a tool that helps (organizing) [WF, agr, Gr - ^ organize] a text. It does not only add rhythm to a sentence and (makes) [agr - ^ make] it sound better, it also allows [foc - ^one] to structure ideas, order thoughts, emphasize related ideas and clarify meaning. A writer can parallel any sentence structures, e.g. verbs, adverbs, objects and phrases. The underlying idea is that sentence elements that are alike in function should also be alike in grammatical form.

1) Emphasize related ideas:

• Not paralleled: Students like reading, listening and to write essays about urban planning.
• Paralleled: Students like reading, listening and writing essays about urban planning.

The (verb) [W,M,coh - ^phrase] “to write” is different from (the verbs) [M,coh] “reading” and “listening,” which are gerunds. (Verb) [W,coh - ^ Such] consistency shows to a reader that all ideas are equally important. They have the same grammatical relationship to the same thing. 

Sometimes it is hard to detect faulty parallelism in (ones) [P, Gr - ^ one's] written work, as can be seen in the following sentences:

• Not paralleled: Lisa is neither a student nor is she a teacher.
• Paralleled: Lisa is neither a student nor a teacher. (→ same grammatical form)
• Paralleled: Neither is Lisa a student nor is she a teacher. (→ same grammatical form)

2) Structure thought / facilitate memorization:

• Not paralleled: These students – who have astonishing ideas, like to be creative and eating in the canteen – usually have the potential to lead far reaching discussions.
•  Paralleled: These students - who have astonishing ideas, who like to be creative, and who like eating in the canteen – usually have the potential to lead far reaching discussions.

The repetition of certain words may help structuring thoughts and memorizing important aspects. 

3) Clarify meaning:

• Not paralleled: Mel researches cell membranes and walls.

→ This sentence leaves open the question whether Mel is a biologist and looks for a new aesthetic wallpaper, or if she is a biologist that looks at all constituents of a cell.

• Paralleled: Mel researches cell membranes and cell walls. 

The given examples show that a consistency in form can make it easier for a reader to follow the arguments of a text and thereby to understand and remember them. This is why parallelism can also be a helpful tool in the domain of essay writing.

Chiasmus is defined as reverse parallelism. An AB order thus becomes a BA construction. 

This device can help to underline a point of view or transport a distinct diction.

Sitting together in the seminar (A), the students talked effusively (B); but they said nothing at all (B) sitting in the pub (A)

Sitting together in the seminar (A), the students talked effusively (B); but sitting in the pub (A), they said nothing at all (B).

The order of sentence structures supports a certain diction and sets a certain focus. The chiasmus in the given example stresses the fact that the students (didn't) [reg - ^did not] say a word although they were in the pub, a place where people are likely to communicate with each other. 

Another example:

• What is learned (A) unwillingly (B) is forgotten (A) gladly (B).
• What is learned (A) unwillingly (B) is gladly (B) forgotten (A).

I wonder whether these examples and explanations could have convinced George Orwell of the fact that parallelism and chiasmus are helpful tools to enhance clarity in expression. He saw language as an instrument to express thought and thus asked everybody to use it as clearly as possible (see Orwell 1950, p.10). The given explanations suggest that this sought for clarity can be supported by the devices of parallelism and chiasmus. Still, a balanced and reflected use of stylistic devices is important. Only if your argument can be transported more clearly and effectively by putting it in the form of parallelism or chiasmus, the use will abide by Orwells demands.